Existentialism

1.     Origin of Existentialism

The main founder of existential is Kierkegaard. He was a religious man who called for faith in the existence of God without an evidence of his existence. But, some thinkers see that God existence is not necessary. A secularist called Sartre considered that man is the essence of existence; "existence precedes essence", Sartre said. Existentialism believes that man's existence is more important than the existence of truth, principles, and laws. Human being is the one who chooses the laws and decides the truth. A man's freedom is his source of existence. According to Existentialism, there's no traditional, social, or religious limits for a man; he's the one who makes the culture. Emotions, feelings, and perception are the characteristics that specialize a human being. Thus, we can't teach human's knowledge; however, he should gain it by himself. (Policepatil, 2011)

According to existentialism, human being is not alone. He has social interaction. Thus, human's essence is not important as human's existence. Existentialism is humanism, according to Sartre. (Policepatil, 2011)

2.     Existentialism and Aim of Education

The aim of education is giving value to the human being and his existence, freeing him from all social and cultural limits, and giving him the freedom to choose and decide what he will do and be. (Policepatil, 2011)

3.     Curriculum

Any subject that supports developing of human being and satisfies his existential needs should be included in the curriculum, in existentialism view. Thus; all of music, religion, drama, art, literature, philosophy, medicine, sports, and games consist the curriculum. (Policepatil, 2011)

4.     Method of Teaching, Role of Teaching & Concept of Discipline

According to Existentialism, children should feel safe in the class. The only principle they should think about is self-evaluation. Thus, children should focus on developing themselves not on intense competitions, fear of failure, and strict discipline rules. Instead, the school should provide a learning environment full of freedom. (Policepatil, 2011)

The role of the teacher in teaching process is a facilitator. He should provide an environment that supports exploration. Teachers should focus on the student not on the teaching programs; thus, mass teaching and testing are without a vail. The schedule must be flexible in order to nurture the freedom of choice. Rewards and punishments are not allowed and they're not considered as growth boosters. Humanness determines the teacher student relationship it should be strong and positive. Thus, existentialism was against mechanical teaching. (Policepatil, 2011)

The teacher is the center of attention. He should response wisely to students’ actions and questions that are sometimes challenging. He should grow in a democratic climate that encourages respecting others and valuing differences. (Policepatil, 2011)

Moral judgments should suit the individual himself. Children should receive positive evaluation from their teachers. Labels, as lazy and slow learner can adversely affect students’ behavior. As mentioned before, existentialism is against mechanization and impersonation methods of teaching. Representation of students by ID numbers, codes, and symbols weakens the student - teacher relationship. The program of the school becomes impersonal and lacks respect. Therefore, using machines in teaching and leads to dehumanization and disrespect the human value. (Policepatil, 2011)

5.     References

o   Policepatil, S. B. (2011). A STUDY OF EDUCATION THOUGHTS OF DR. RABINDRANATH TAGORE AND THEIR RELEVANCE TO PRESENT EDUCATION SYSTEM. Department of Education, POST GRADUATE DEPARTMENT OF STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Dharwad: Karnatak University. Retrieved 10 22, 2019, from https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/95956/5/05_chapter%201.pdf  

        Pragmatism

1.     Origin of Pragmatism

Pragmatism is an old philosophy; however, its role in education has come between the 19th & 20th century. Many philosophers such as William Kilpatrick, George Counts, and Boyd Bode built this philosophy's education structure; and the creative philosophers John Dewy integrated philosophy with education. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

The word "pragmatism" is of Greeks origin and it means "work". Pragmatist believes that truth is observable; thus, it may change. For it, truth is absolutely relative and can change according to the happening situations. Dewey claimed that teachers in democratic society must have diverse methods of teaching, where each method might work for a student and might not work for another one. Therefore, pragmatism believes in diversity of students, their thinking of their instruction methods. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

2.     Pragmatism and Educate Process

According to pragmatism, educative process is all about activity and experience. Pragmatism believes that education system is always going forward. It’s always in progress, and progress refers to change, and change involves more novelty. Therefore, knowledge cannot be given at once. The educative process, then, is pragmatic; which means it is gradual and experimental. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

3.     Educational Implication

There are five educational implications in pragmatism:

                       i.      Education as Life

Pragmatism believes that the traditional way of teaching became useless. Education is about reorganization, reconstruction, and combination of the race experiences. It wants to maintain the culture of the past, think of solutions to force new situations, then integrate both of them. Thus, knowledge can be only gained through experiments, activities, and life experiences. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

                     ii.      Education as a Growth

In pragmatism view, child is not born as a blank paper; however, he is born with abilities and tendencies that can be brought out by education. Thus, education is only a mediator between the child's mental ideas and the external world. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

                   iii.      Education as a Social Process

For pragmatism, social relationships can teach the human being more than books. Thus, children must be educated in a social medium that develops them socially to reach happiness and satisfaction. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

                   iv.      Education Is a Continuous Restructuring of Experience

Pragmatism believes that education is a journey, not a destination. It's a process of gaining knowledge through reconstruction and adjustment of an experiment. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

                     v.      Education The Responsibility of State

For Pragmatism, it's any state responsibility to make education a right for any child. Without this right, the state and its children will suffer and fail in the future. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

4.     Pragmatism and Aim of Education

Pragmatism has no aims of education. It believes that education is always in progress-always developing. Thus, its aim cannot be bounded; it’s dynamic and subjective. For pragmatism, education is about dealing with human life, so it must fulfill children’s need until they feel satisfied. Education should train children to be able to adjust themselves to the new environment when the situations change. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

5.     Pragmatism and Curriculum

Four principles have been described, by pragmatism, in this field:

                       i.      Principle of Utility

Curriculum should include subjects, activities, and experiences that children need and use in the present and future such as History, Science, Physical training, Language, Geography, Physical wellbeing, and Home science for girls. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

                     ii.      Principle of Interest

Only activities and experiences that children are interest in should be in the curriculum such as Art, Craft-work, Reading, Counting, Writing, Natural science, and other simple nature practices. Dewey divided interests into four categories: interest in conversation, interest in investigation, interest in construction, and interest in creative expression. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

                   iii.      Principle of Experience

Child’s activity, career, and experience should be integrated, according to this principle. Any curriculum should contain plenty of learning experiences that improve the child’s thinking, personality, and confidence. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

                   iv.      Principle of Integration

According to pragmatism, subjects and activities should be integrated; knowledge is one unit. An adjustable, changeable, and integrated curriculum is a must, in pragmatists view, to help the child adapt when he develops, society changes, and demands increase. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

6.     Pragmatism and Methods of Teaching

Pragmatism’s method of teaching is an activity-based method. For pragmatism, knowledge can be gained through activities and experiments. When students learn through experiments, they become creative, confident, cooperative, and prepared for practical life. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

Pragmatists depend on experimental methods of teaching where students should discover the truth by themselves. This requires the application of methods that encourage them to discover and increase their excitement toward the truth. According to pragmatism, knowledge is gained through auto-education or self-education method, where the role of teacher and book is secondary. They only support and guide the students in activities. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

7.     Teacher

Pragmatism describes teacher as philosopher, helper to help students improve and develop their talent abilities, and guide to guide them to solve the problems that he suggests. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

8.     Discipline

For pragmatism, discipline is about tracking the child’s interests. Teacher and student, both cooperate to solve a problem which shows that education is a social process. In this process, teacher suggests the problem and guides the pupil but all work is done by the pupil. Even in group work, all are equal; there are no rewards or punishments for any student. (Sharma, Devi, & Kumari, 2018)

9.     References 

o   Sharma, S., Devi, R., & Kumari, J. (2018, February 4). Pragmatism in Education. ICNFESMH-2018 (pp. 74-79). India: OM Institute of Technology & Management.

      Al-Ghazali

1.     Biography

Al-Ghazali was born in Tus, Khorasan in 1058 CE. He worked as a teacher in Baghdad in the Nizamaya Madrasa at the age of 29. He was interested in education, so he focused on teaching methods, knowledge, the relationship between teachers and learners, and testing methods and principles. (SOUSSI, 2016)

2.     Al-Ghazali on Early Childhood Education

A learner passes through four main ages: early childhood adolescence, after 20, and around 40. According to Al-Ghazali, interests change from one age to another; thus, teachers should pay attention the interests’ development of their students. In Al-Ghazali view, the teacher’s role is to motivate the learners. (SOUSSI, 2016)

Al-Ghazali was a behaviorism supporter, so he encouraged the idea of rewarding students when they behave good with their classmates and teachers and show good morals. He considered rewarding as a way for motivating the student himself and his peers to rewarded as him. On contrary to “rewarding” there’s “punishment” for bad behaviors-not physical harm. (SOUSSI, 2016)

In Al-Ghazali’s view, teaching should be a gradual process, where the teacher starts with lower-level skill and information and then moves to a higher-level skill. He discussed another important principle regarding infants and children, which is teaching this group of leaners-infants and children-morals like equality between peers, trustiness, asceticism, and geniality due to their high influence by each other in this age. He encouraged teachers to deal with students that have extreme behavior traits as shyness. Also, he was with separation students according to their knowledge level. (SOUSSI, 2016)

3.     Curricula and Knowledge

Al-Ghazali wrote about the concept of knowledge in education, its categories, and teaching methods.

                          i.      Knowledge: The Concept and Categories

In Al-Ghazali’s view, the knowledge of God, his prophets, the heavens, and Shariah was the fundamental knowledge and the source of happiness in the life and after. He considered that natural sciences and religion one complementary and sciences doesn’t contradict religion.  “The best proof of this could be the fact the al Ghazali’s statements about natural sciences were included into the Al Azhar curriculum at the end of the nineteen century”. (SOUSSI, 2016)

                        ii.      Educational Curricula

Al-Ghazali divided higher education into two stages: obligatory, in which religions and related sciences as linguistics are taught; and optional where several subjects are chosen depending on the individual’s capacity and preference. The optional science subjects were divided into revealed, where Fiqh, ethics, Sunna, and Ijmaa are included; and non-revealed sciences such as medicine, history, and mathematics. (SOUSSI, 2016)

However, most artistic subjects weren’t in the optional subjects in Al-Ghazali curriculum. Music, for example, was divided into licit, which is favored and can motivate individuals to do their worships; and reprehensive and forbidden that are for entertainment. Painting and drawing, in Al-Ghazali view, were not accepted if they show man or an animal since they will be representing idols which one Haram in Islam. (SOUSSI, 2016)

4.     Teaching System

                          i.      The Learner 

Al-Ghazali focused on the interaction between the learner and the teacher as the said: “Education is an “interaction” and effecting and benefiting teacher and pupil equally, the former gaining merit for giving instruction and the latter cultivating himself through-the acquisition of knowledge” (in Nofal, p.528). (SOUSSI, 2016)

Following the interaction, Al-Ghazali focused on the relation between the learner and the environment he’s living in. Thus, the leaner’s environment as their personalities affects the teaching process, which should be noticed by the teachers. Diversity- whether it’s racial, gender, cultural, age, ethnic, racial, and social class- is an important issue for the teacher to deal with during teaching since any of these diversities can affect motivation. Al-Ghazali stressed on the importance of comfort of the learner in the classmate in getting knowledge and understanding. Thus, teachers must be prepared for any sensitive reaction from the learner about their diversities as they prepare for new lessons. (SOUSSI, 2016)

                        ii.      The Teacher

For Al-Ghazali, the teacher is a father, model, facilitator, and counselor; not a source of knowledge only. He cared about the “intellectual side of teaching”, where the teachers should think about the students and the subjects they teach. Al-Ghazali claimed that teaching is a complicated combination of mind, ethics, and heart of the teachers, where all should be present at once. Thus, a teacher should always keep their eyes on the students and ask them about their interest in the lesson, rate of understanding and the difficult ideas, learning styles and methods, and the barriers they’re facing in the teaching process. Therefore, the teacher breaks the barriers and obstacles, letting the knowledge pass in, and consequently the happiness of the learner’s soul which is the goal to be reached, according to Al-Ghazali. (SOUSSI, 2016)

                      iii.      Teaching

Al-Ghazali classified the religions studies as the most noble study since it’s the link between the human being and his God; thus, as the link gets stronger, an ultimate happiness will be sent to this person. He assured that knowledge should be practiced since learning is not effective until it’s functional. He described the teacher as “coach” in his natural learning theory. (SOUSSI, 2016)

As mentioned before, AL-Ghazali put a teaching approach named “gradual teaching” approach. He emphasized the importance of teacher’s patience toward their students and gradual teaching of new information. (SOUSSI, 2016)

According to Al-Ghazali, for a student to be a good learner, he should be characterized by having a pure spirit before requesting knowledge and dealing with their teachers in high moral behavior. Then, he should dedicate himself searching for knowledge. Whenever the learner starts at a level, he must master it before moving up to the next level; and last of all, he must specialize in a subject of his preference. Al-Ghazali focused on two main points regarding the characteristics of learner: gradual learning and subject choice. A learner can’t be specialized directly; however, he should move up step by step to choose a preferable subject according to gender and social background, in Al-Ghazali’s view. (SOUSSI, 2016)       

5.     References 

o   SOUSSI, D. K. (2016, November ). AL Ghazali Cultivates Education: A Comparison with Modern Theories. International Journal of Education and Research, 4(11), 425-436. 

     Al-Farabi

1.     Biography

Abu Nasr Mohammad Al-Farabi was born in 870 AD. He belonged to a noble family in Farab in Turkestan. He was Muslim, philosopher, intellectual, and educationist who moved to Baghdad searching for knowledge and education. He studied several domains including philosophy, logic, music, grammar, sciences, and mathematics. Al-Farabi was called the “Second teacher” following Aristotle who was known as the “First teacher”. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

2.     The Aims of Education

One of the most essential social phenomena in Al-Farabi’s system was education. In Al-Farabi’s view, education is the link between the human and the goal he should reach to be an effective member socially. He added that education is specific for a certain culture in a certain period where there is different knowledge, practical skills, and values earning. Thus, its purpose is leading human beings toward perfection and absolute happiness. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

According to Al-Farabi, a perfect human being combines between moral and aesthetic values. Thus, he expected from education to do this combination between knowledge and good behavior to create perfection. He also described education as the combination between learning and practicing. Knowledge cannot be seen by having it, but by applying it. The secret behind perfection is its application. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

3.     Concept of Values

A safe life in any city can be ensured, according to Al-Farabi view, by having citizens with balanced morals. The balance in these morals can be only achieved through education. Thus, a gap in education leads to a decrease in moral values; consequently, citizens won’t trust each other anymore. Similarly, the absence of moral values leads to city life disturbance. However, morals can be classified, according to person’s mood that affects his behavior, to ethical and rational morals. Ethical morals like justice, courage, and satisfaction, whereas rational morals are wisdom, intelligence, and common sense. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

4.     Methodology of Instruction

In Al-Farabi view, there are five teaching methods: description and persuasion, demonstration, discussion, imagination, and habituation. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

Al-Farabi divided people into elite and common people and instruction into special and general that can be achieved through demonstration and persuasion, respectively. Elite people were taught using demonstration method that is based on proofs and evidences since they are not limited to theoretical knowledge and cannot be convinced through description. Those people are tested to find out if they are genius. On contrary, the general public were taught through description and persuasion. They are limited to the general ideas and opinions which are called the theoretical knowledge. Thus, it was enough for them to describe the idea then convince them by it. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

The difference in the methods of instruction is due to the leading role of the elite people. Thus, Al-Farabi suggests an appropriate method of instruction for the elite and common people according to their level of learning. He stressed the importance of education for all people to reach perfection; however, he gave each group of people a convenient method of teaching. In addition, instruction method can vary between demonstration and persuasion according to the subject to be taught. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

Al-Farabi followed Plato’s model and used the dialogue method. Plato used this method to convince people by idealism and go from sensory perception to world of truth using the dialectic method; however, Al-Farabi used it for instruction too. Also, he proposed two methods of discussion: the argument method and discourse method where both can be used orally or in writing with taking into consideration comprehension level of the person-from common people- we’re speaking to. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

Discourse of persuasion convinces the listener to satisfy his mind without reaching certainty unlike the demonstrative discourse that explains the truth until the accurate knowledge is brought out reaching to certainty. However, some people are stubborn and cannot be convinced easily. Al-Farabi dealt with this kind of people through the debating method in which the idea is taken to the furthest part until the opponent is convinced by it. Another type of discourse is the scientific discourse. It is like a deductive where knowledge is obtained by solving a scientific problem. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

Imagination is another instruction method according to Al-Farabi. It is the way to teach common people the ideas that are hard to be understood by using simile and metaphors. Illustrations are beneficial to convince stubborn people by the truth. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

Habituation, in al-Farabi’s view, is a teaching method where a human being repeats and practices a certain action until it creates a deep pattern in his mind. He stated that ethical values can only be acquired through habituation. It is not used only for teaching morals, but can be also used to teach writing and practical arts. Habituation can be taught through persuasion and effective speech. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

5.     Curriculum

The first Muslim philosopher who classified sciences and learning was Al-Farabi. He considered the language as the foundation of everything. For the student to understand any idea, he must understand its language first. Being unable to understand the language can block him from developing himself. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

Following language, comes logic, which is the foundation of science methodology. Then, mathematics comes. Al-Farabi describes mathematics as the vertex of the theoretical sciences, so any science begins with numbers. He divided mathematics into seven categories ranging from the immaterial and immeasurable to the materialistic and measurable ones. Then, geometry follows mathematics, in which it tends to erase all uncertainties and prove all of them. Following it, there is perspectives, astronomy, music, mechanics, and last of all natural sciences in which they depend on matter. (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

6.     Teacher’s Characteristics

Al-Farabi differentiate between two types of teachers: the active intellect which is the first teacher for human being and the real teacher who helps students to learn new thinking through teaching. Active intellect is more powerful than human intellect. Active intellect represents the formal aspects of intelligence like wisdom, logic, and reasons-it is about human thinking. On contrary, human intellect depends on the previous knowledge only. (Shahsavari, 2012) Al-Farabi put some scientific and educational requirements for the teacher like being professional in his field, healthy, able to make students understand, able to prove any information that any student has doubt about, and being able to deal with all students on equal basis. (Shahsavari, 2012) (Rauf, Ahmad, & Iqbal, 2013)

7.     Student’s Characteristics

In order to find all sciences and be happy, Al-Farabi believed that intellect can be divided into three types: the potential intellect that studies human talent, the actual intellect that understands physical object intellect, and the meant intellect that understands abstract forms. Students, in Al-Farabi’s view, must use all his efforts to reach active intellect, cooperate in the social life, and cooperate with their teachers. (Shahsavari, 2012)

8.     References

o   Rauf, D., Ahmad, D., & Iqbal, D. (2013, April). AL-FARABI’S PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. Educational Research International, 1(2), 85-94.

o   Shahsavari, M. (2012). Al-Farabi Educational Ideas about the Foundations of Education. Journal of Basic and Applied, 2(9), 9569-9572.